The modern celebration of Halloween, complete with costumes, trick or treating, and carved Jack O’ Lanterns has a long history, dating back to the early Middle Ages. The holiday’s origins in pagan or Christian celebrations remain disputed among popular and scholarly commentators, and practices from both traditions can be seen in the modern incarnation of Halloween.
Some of the themes and practices of modern Halloween celebrations echo those of pre-Christian pagan traditions. The festival of Samhain was celebrated by the Celts, a group that lived 2,000 years ago in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and northern France. The Celts celebrated November 1st as the beginning of the "darker half" of the new year, marking the end of summer and the beginning of winter. They thought that the line between the living and the dead was blurred on the night preceding the new year and that the dead could return to the earth as ghosts who could damage the crops before the harvest and cause trouble for the living. This blurring between the earth and spirit realms was also an opportunity for the Celtic priests, the Druids, to commune with the spirit world and predict the future. The Druids built bonfires on October 31 to burn sacrifices of animals and crops to their gods for a propitious new year. During these ceremonies, the Celts dressed in costumes of animal skins and told fortunes. The Romans, who conquered much of the British Isles by 43 A.D., brought two of their own festivals with them that were then combined with Samhain. The Romans celebrated Feralia in late October by commemorating the dead. The Romans also celebrated a holiday to honor Pomona, goddess of trees and fruit, whose symbol is the apple.
The name Halloween is derived from the Catholic Feast of All Saints, or “All Hallows”, which is celebrated on November 1st. This feast celebrates all the saints in heaven and is followed on November 2nd by the Feast of All Souls, which honors all of the faithful departed. All Saints’ Day was moved to November 1 by Pope Gregory III (r. 731-741) to mark the dedication of All Saints’ Chapel in St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. All Saints’ Day became a general feast (a holiday celebrated throughout Christendom and not restricted to a particular country or region) under Pope Gregory IV (r. 827-844) in the mid-ninth century. The holy day begins with a vigil the evening prior, referred to in English-speaking countries as “All Hallows Even”, which was shortened to “Hallowe’en”. All Souls’ Day became a feast in France during the late tenth century under St. Odilo, abbot of Cluny, and soon spread throughout Europe.
Halloween became connected with damned souls in Ireland in the Middle Ages. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the late fifth and early sixth centuries. When the Feast of All Saints’ became general in the ninth century, the Irish noted that the Church celebrated the saints in heaven and departed faithful souls in heaven or purgatory on their way to heaven but did not have a place in its calendar for the souls that did not make it to heaven. For fear of offending these unhappy souls and causing them to molest the living, the Irish began to clang pots and pans on All Hallow’s Eve to remember the damned and to drive them away.
The practice of dressing up in costume originated in France in the late medieval period. During the Black Plague, representations of death known as the “danse macabre” or dance of death were painted on cemeteries and used as book engravings. In these paintings, a personified “Death” or the devil leads people from all states of life—from kings and popes to peasants and merchants—to their tombs, indicating that one’s rank in society does not protect one from death and judgment. On All Souls’ Day, the dance of the dead was acted out in some cities and towns, with participants dressed up in costume to represent different social ranks and states of life. Dressing up in costumes to represent the dead likely moved from All Souls’ Day on November 2 to Halloween on October 31 in the North American colonies in the 18th century, when Irish and French immigrants shared their customs through intermarriage and the formation of new communities.
The practice of asking neighbors for candy, trick or treating, is an American practice likely derived from English practices on Guy Fawkes Day, November 5. Between 1500 and 1700, referred to as the “penal period” in England, in which Catholics were forbidden under pain of death from practicing their religion, Protestant revelers would visit Catholic homes on Guy Fawkes’ Day night to demand cakes, beer, and other treats while wearing masks. Another English contribution to trick or treating was the practice of begging a “soul cake” (a traditional food eaten on All Hallow’s Eve) from neighbors in exchange for prayers for the neighbor’s deceased relatives. The trick or treat of Guy Fawkes’ Day merged with the Irish remembrance of the damned and the French costumed portrayal of the dead in America in the 18th century.
Immigrants to North America from England, Ireland, France, and other areas brought their traditions with them, which melded together to form the modern American celebration of Halloween. In the colonial period, “play parties” celebrating the harvest involved telling fortunes, remembering the dead, dancing, singing, and telling stories, including ghost stories. In the mid- to late-nineteenth century, Americans dressed in costume went from house to house for money or food. Halloween parties in the early twentieth century were community get-togethers focused on the harvest, games, and seasonal food rather than religion or superstition. Halloween became a secular holiday in the 1920s and 30s, with parades and community parties. Between the 1920s and 1950s, trick or treating became popular as a way to involve the entire community in the holiday, and for people to prevent unpleasant “tricks” by showing their generosity to young people with candy.
- Halloween Themes: An overview of the history of Halloween, with emphases on the groups involved, how Halloween is celebrated in different countries, and the history of the Jack O’ Lantern.
- Origins of Halloween: This site traces the beginnings of Halloween from Samhain to the modern practice of Halloween.
- Halloween Rituals: The ancient religious rituals that shaped the modern celebration of Halloween.
- Halloween Folklore: The origins and development of Halloween celebrations.
- Halloween Facts: The history of Halloween and urban legends about Halloween.
- Halloween in America: The celebration of Halloween in the United States in the twentieth century.
- American Halloween: The celebration of Halloween in the United States and its history.
- Halloween Food: History of food customs for Halloween and the Day of the Dead.
- Celtic Traditions: An article on the Celtic roots of the Halloween celebration.
Written by Michael S. Atwood